Critical Evaluation of Technologies

Sustainability in designing and making

Sustainability means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Designers and manufacturers must consider sustainability at every stage:

• Material choice — use recycled, renewable or sustainably sourced materials where possible
• Manufacturing process — minimise energy use, waste and pollution during production
• Product life — design products to last longer, be easier to repair, and use less energy in operation
• End of life — design products so materials can be easily separated and recycled or safely disposed of

The Six Rs

A useful framework for evaluating sustainability in design:

R	Question to ask
Reduce	Can you use fewer or less material? Can energy use be reduced?
Reuse	Can the product or its components be used again?
Recycle	Are materials recyclable at the end of the product’s life?
Repair	Is the product designed to be easily serviced and fixed?
Rethink	Is there a fundamentally better or greener way to solve this problem?
Refuse	Should harmful or unsustainable materials be avoided altogether?

Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)

Life Cycle Analysis (also called Life Cycle Assessment) is a method of evaluating the total environmental impact of a product from cradle to grave — from the extraction of raw materials through to final disposal.

The four stages of an LCA are:

1. Raw material extraction — where do the materials come from? What is the environmental cost of extracting them?
2. Manufacturing — how much energy and water is used? What waste and emissions are produced?
3. Use — how much energy does the product consume during its working life? Does it produce emissions?
4. Disposal — can the product be recycled? Does it go to landfill? Does it release harmful substances when disposed of?

LCA helps designers identify which stage has the greatest environmental impact so improvements can be targeted effectively.

Cradle to cradle

Cradle to cradle is an extension of the LCA concept — instead of a product ending its life as waste (cradle to grave), it is designed so that all materials can be recovered and used again in a new product. Nothing is wasted.

Design obsolescence

Obsolescence is when a product is no longer useful, desired, or supported.

Planned obsolescence

Planned obsolescence is a deliberate strategy where a manufacturer designs a product to have a limited useful life, so that consumers will need to buy a replacement.

• Advantages for manufacturers: ensures repeat sales; funds ongoing research and development
• Disadvantages for consumers and environment: increased waste; higher costs for users; encourages a throwaway culture

Examples

• Smartphones with batteries that cannot be replaced, or software updates that slow older devices
• Fast fashion garments designed to fall apart after limited wear
• Printers where ink cartridges run out quickly

Technological obsolescence

Products can also become obsolete because newer technology replaces them, even if they still work:

• DVD players replaced by streaming services
• Film cameras replaced by digital cameras

Carbon footprint

A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (particularly CO₂) produced directly and indirectly by a product, organisation or person.

Carbon footprint in design and manufacture

Every stage of a product’s life contributes to its carbon footprint:

• Raw materials — extraction, processing and transportation of materials
• Manufacturing — energy used by machinery and factories (especially if powered by fossil fuels)
• Distribution — transporting products from factory to retailer to consumer
• Use — energy consumed by the product during its working life
• Disposal — energy used in recycling, or emissions from landfill

Reducing carbon footprint

Designers and manufacturers can reduce carbon footprint by:

• Sourcing materials locally to reduce transport emissions
• Using renewable energy in manufacturing
• Reducing the weight of products (less material = less energy to produce and transport)
• Designing for longevity so products do not need frequent replacement
• Using recycled materials which require less energy to process than raw materials

Social, cultural, economic and environmental responsibilities

When evaluating any technology or design decision, consider all four dimensions:

• Social — does the product have any unintended effects on people or communities? Does it improve or harm quality of life?
• Cultural — is the product appropriate and respectful across different cultures and communities? Could it cause offence?
• Economic — is the product affordable for the intended market? Are the true costs (including environmental costs) accounted for? Are supply chains fair?
• Environmental — what is the ecological impact at every stage of the product’s life? Has the carbon footprint been minimised?

A product that scores well in all four areas represents truly responsible design.